Information and communication science

   Tosinrogue!! A blogger

OVERVIEW

This course will be examining data, types of data, information, uses of information, value of information, information systems, different types of information systems, channels of communicating information, highlighting new communication technologies and its impact on the interaction of individuals and groups in a particular information related environment.

BACKGOUND TO THE COURSE

What is information science?

Information Science is interdisciplinary in nature. It is primarily concerned with the collection, analysis, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.

Information Science is often (mistakenly) considered as branch of Computer Science. However, it is a broad interdisciplinary field incorporating diverse field such as archival science, Cognitive science, Commerce, Law, Management, Philosophy, Mathematics, Public policy and the social sciences.

Therefore, practitioners within this field study the application and use of information in organizations along with the interaction between people in a particular information related environment with the aim of creating, replacing, improving or understanding information systems.

In a nutshell, Information Science consists of having the knowledge and understanding on how to collect, classify, manipulate, store, retrieve and disseminate any type of information.

Information professionals are concerned with different ways of handling data/ information from the stage of collection, packaging/ processing (arranging, summarizing, translating and finally dissemination.

What is Data

Data is a collection of facts, figures and symbols such as values or measurement. It can be in numbers, words, measurement, observations or even just description of things. Data can be collected through interviews, direct observation or surveys. A set of data may or may not be meaningful depending on the usefulness to the user.

Data are what an individual can perceive with any of the five senses, and from which information can be generated. Data can be communicated by other people, documents, computer or telecommunication systems (internet). Example of data is the list containing the jamb scores of students.

Data and information are two closely interrelated concepts that people unconsciously use interchangeably; but in the actual sense they are different from each other.

Tamiyu (2003) defined data as communication symbols that are used to describe an entity. Communication symbols become data when they are used to express an idea or describe a particular entity.  This means that data can be written, spoken or implied by non-verbal actions.

For instance the symbols “large” and “small” can be used to describe the size of ICS 101 class. In this instance, the symbols are the data being used to describe the size of the class.

 WHAT IS INFORMATION

Information is meaningful data in the sense that it has to be processed, translated, summarized, and arranged by the user of the information.

DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS OF INFORMATION

Tiamiyu (2003) defined information from three main perspectives:

·        Sender’s definition of information

·        Receiver’s definition of information

·        Average definition of information

The sender definition of information is the understanding or meaning intended by the sender of the data.

The receiver’s definition of information is the understanding or meaning derived or inferred by the recipient of the data.

 In the process of communicating information, for instance, MR. (X) might wants to communicate an expression “short man” to Mr. (Y) with a symbol. This type of information might be perceived accurately or differently depending on some factors:

·        The ability of the sender to accurately perceive the entity/data/ symbol.

·        Appropriateness of the data to describe the particular entity.

·        Ability of the recipient to infer accurately from the data intended.

The difference between information intended and information inferred is referred to as “Noise”. Noise tends to distort the information conveyed or inferred thereby reducing the effectiveness of communication.

The average definition of information

This is the average of the different meaning that senders and recipients in a particular community infer from a given set of data. For instance three individuals in a community might interpret the data “short man” differently depending on their level of perception.  However, the average interpretation of the data “short man” would be taken as the information conveyed by the data in that community.

 Michael Buklland (2001) also defined information in three different ways: These three definitions are quite overlapping.

Information –as-thing: This is used to denote objects that are attributive, informative and instructive in nature such as data, documents, text etc. They have the quality of imparting knowledge or communicating information.

Information- as- process:  It is the act of informing, communicating of knowledge, news, facts or occurrence. It is the action of telling or fact of being told something.

Information as knowledge: This is used to denote that which is perceived in information- as- process i.e the knowledge communicated concerning some particular facts, news, subject, and events. Information as knowledge has the capability of reducing uncertainty. Another key characteristic of “Information as knowledge” is that it is intangible. One cannot touch or measure it in any direct way. Knowledge, belief and opinion are personal, subjective and conceptual; therefore, to communicate knowledge, it has to be expressed, described or represented in some physical way as a signal or text. Any such expression, description or representation would be information- as thing.

 MISINFORMATION: According to Wikipedia, misinformation is false or inaccurate information that is spread unintentionally, which can be misleading. Misinformation arises when there is not enough evidence, facts or figures concerning a particular situation, therefore, leading to generalization.

  E.g. ICS 101 lecturer will not be coming for classes till next week.

 DISINFORMATION: This is deliberately giving false information that is meant to mislead either as a rumors or propaganda.

E.g. ICS 101 test has been postponed till further notice.

WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge can be defined in the following ways according to Oxford Dictionary

a.     Expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education- theoretical and practical understanding of a subject for a specific purpose.

b.     What is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information.

c.      Awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation

Knowledge is a subset of information. It is a subset that has been extracted, filtered, formatted in a special way. More specifically, the information we call knowledge is information that had been subjected to, and passed test of validation. For instance scientific knowledge (hypotheses and theories) validated by the rules and test applied by the scientific community

Knowledge acquisition therefore, involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION

·        Accuracy

·        Timeliness

·        Currency

·        Completeness

·        Relevance

Week 2:

USES OF INFORMATION IN AN ORGANIZATION

There are 6 main uses of information in organizations.
Communication
 Monitoring and control
Decision-making
Measuring performance
Identifying new business opportunities
Creating awareness

Communication

Effective communication in an organization is enhanced through the use of information. Information can be transferred through various channels such as memos, reports, correspondences intranet, databases, etc from the boss to his subordinates, from one manager to the other, from one employee to the other. Information is needed to communicate the day to day events and happenings in the organization on order to take appropriate decisions.

Monitoring and control

Information can be used to monitor and control performance. This can be done

by comparing actual performance against its predicted (budgeted) performance. Then they will act upon it. For instance it can be used in monitoring the sales level and being able to replace stock as at when due. Also the performance of an organization can be monitored through the financial report.

Decision-making

When managers are ready to make tough choices (decisions) they need good, accurate and up-to-date information. If they act without relevant information it could lead to disaster, and failure. It helps to reduce uncertainty.

Measuring performance

Organizations can compare their sales figures with their competitors or indeed against their own previous years. This type of information can be used to improve performance of the organization; thereby, contributing meaningfully to the organization’s bottom line.

Identifying new business opportunities

Organizations are always on the lookout for gaps in the market. They fill these gaps with suitable products or services to satisfy customer needs. These gaps can be identified through observations, market surveys, and interviews for relevant information that would improve the business and give it a competitive hedge over others.

Create Awareness: Information can be used to enlighten people on your products and services. This awareness can be created via posters, fliers, placard, signboards or bill boards, pamphlets etc.    

Gain knowledge: Relevant Information can enhance the knowledge base on a particular subject/field, product or services. In an organization, information can increase your knowledge of a particular product thereby adding value to you and the profitability of the organization.   

VALUE OF INFORMATION

There is actually no unit of measurement of information. The value of information depends on its usefulness to the user. Therefore, it is a function of its uses.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VALUE OF INFORMATION

Subjectivity: The value given to any kind of information will differ depending on the usefulness to the user and the level of perception. The value attributed to a piece of information by Mr. A will differ from the interpretation of that same information by Mr. B. This means the value of information is subjective in nature.

Situation dependent: The relevance of a piece of information is situation dependant. i.e what may be information today may not be information tomorrow. This means that the value of information could diminish with time. E.g. the information about the availability of fuel in a particular place OR information from the news (print media). 

Positive: The information (good or bad) that will enable you take necessary decision has a positive value. This means that the information is beneficial to the user.  E.g. Bursary department is giving out loans to students OR the death of a known person.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

Negative: Negative information are detrimental in nature. This information are false and can mislead. Therefore the value of such information is negative E.g. All the students of ICS 101 class are involved in the protest against the Vice Chancellor.  

Zero: Zero information means that the information at any point in time is of no use to the person. The person can afford to disregard the piece of information. This means that the value of the information is zero.

QUANTITATIVE WAYS OF MEASURING THE VALUE OF INFORMATION

·        Cost Benefit Analysis- A cost benefit analysis enables one to weigh the cost of acquiring a piece of information to the benefit derived from the use of that information. Assuming you obtained a piece of information from the front page of Guardian Newspaper, the cost is N40 paid for the purchase of the newspaper. On the other hand, if the information is free, the cost of acquiring the information is the transport fare used to obtain information from the source; and if the person is mobile, the cost will be the amount you used to fuel your car. Aside the cost, you weigh the benefit derived from the use of the information.

·        Cost of not having the information: This is the cost incurred for not having a piece of information at the right time. For instance, assuming you have a conference to attend at Abuja, on getting there you were told that the conference had been postponed; and a letter was sent to you to that effect but had not been received. The cost of that piece of information that was sent to you, but was not received is what it cost you to travel to and fro to Abuja. The value of that piece of information is the cost incurred for not having the information at the right time.

·        Willingness to Pay (Users Approach): The value you place on a piece of information is determined by your willingness to pay for that piece of information. For instance, there is scarcity of fuel, and somebody has information of where you can purchase fuel and has asked you to pay for the information. The amount you pay to that person is determined by the value you place on that piece of information.

·        Producer’s determination (Demand Approach): If there is high demand for a piece of information, it means that the value of that information is high, therefore the producer determining the cost of acquiring that information. E.g. rendering an information service that is of high demand to the public.

TYPES OF DATA

Data can be classified based on its usage to the user. These are divided into two types:

·        Primary data- This is data observed or collected directly by firsthand experience by the researcher using methods such as interviews and questionnaire.  The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and until you publish no one has access to it.

·        Secondary data- This is data that had been collected and collated by somebody other than the researcher for some reasons not related to the current study. It can be used to get different perspectives on the current study, to supplement or compare the work with others. It is data that is neither collected directly by the user nor specifically for the user. It may be available from internal sources or collected and published by another organization. Examples of secondary data include: published reports, Government Statistics, Scientific and technical reports, financial statements, Bank’s reports, Books, Magazine, Websites, Television, Radio, Newspaper, Films, Journals and Publications. These sources are in exhaustible.

Advantages

1.     It is cheap and inexpensive.

2.     It is easily accessible.

3.     It is readily available.

4.     It saves time and effort.

5.     It provides a basis for comparison.      

Disadvantages

1.     Credibility of the source of publication or report.

2.     The data might be outdated i.e it may not be relevant to your scope of study.

3.     The researcher has no control over the quality of the data collected.

4.     Authenticity of the data collection measures is questionable.

Data can further be divided into three main types

·        Textual data e.g The boy has small stature

·        Numerical data e.g 45.2 %

·        Pictorial data e.g bar chart, histograms, tables etc

QUALITATIVE DATA

Qualitative data includes virtually any information that can be captured that is not numerical in nature. It is descriptive information. It describes something. Qualitative data can be collected via:

-         Indepth interviews

-         Direct observation

-         Written documents

 The below data describes a little girl.

·        She is beautiful

·        She is fair complexioned

·        She has a long hair

QUANTITATIVE DATA

Quantitative data is used to describe a type of data that can be counted or expressed numerically. This type of data is often collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analyzed. It can be represented virtually in graphs, histograms, tables and charts. Examples:

·        The total number of students attending ICS 101 is 150

·        The footballers’ heights are expected to be 6ft 5inches each to participate in the match.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA

QUALITATIVE DATA	QUANTITATIVE DATA
Deals with description	Deals with numbers
Data can be observed but not measured	Data can be measured
Data can be expressed in colours, textures, appearance etc.	Data can be expressed in length, height, area, volume, weight, speedtime, temperature, humidity, soundlevels, cost ages etc.
Qualitative- Quality	Quantitative- Quantity

TYPES OF INFORMATION

·        Mode of transmission of information

Oral –verbal (One to one relationship) e.g. lecturing

Written- textbooks, magazine, newspaper

Gestures-signals, spoken or non-verbal cues

·        Organizational information

-Strategic level information (Top management)

-Tactical level information (Middle level managers)

Operational level information (Bottom level managers)

·        Form of Storage

-Numeric (conveying information using numbers) e.g. weather forecast, exchange rate, census exercise etc)

-Textual (conveying information using natural language) e.g. It will rain tomorrow.

-Image (Inferring information from an image) e.g. sign language, signatures, tribal marks etc.

Sound/Audio e.g.  ntional anthem, whistle, siren, alarm (fire or clock).

·        Hard versus soft information- There is a thin line of difference between soft and hard information. What is hard today may be soft tomorrow. It is situation dependent

        Hard information- This type of information is technical in nature. It cannot be easily comprehended by a layman that is not in a particular field. E.g. research reports, journals, feasibility studies etc.

         Soft information: This type of information can easily be comprehended by the users. It is not technical in nature. E.g. newspaper, magazines, textbooks etc.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

What is a source?

A source is the origin of something. It can be defined as a place, person or thing from which something can be obtained.  In other words, an information source can be anything that conveys information or knowledge to somebody. Examples of information sources include: people, documents, pictures, organizations, computer systems, information systems, information centers, online databases, internet etc.

The sources of information can be grouped into three:

-Primary sources

-Secondary sources

-Tertiary sources

Primary sources of information

Primary sources provide first hand information or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation. They are created by the witness or recorder who experienced the event or conditions being documented.

Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based. These sources may appear in physical print or electronic format. They report a discovery, present original thinking or share new information. Examples include

-Artifacts (e.g. coins, plants specimen, furniture, tools, clothings)

-Audio recordings (radio programs)

-Dairies, websites survey research, market survey, public opinion polls

-Internet communication

-Newspaper articles

-Patents

-proceedings of meeting

-Records of organization, government agencies, annual report, treaty, constitution etc

Secondary sources of information

Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources. They are interpretation and evaluation of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on discussion of evidence. The definition of a secondary source may vary depending on the discipline or area of interest. Examples include:

-Bibliographies

-Commentaries

-Dictionaries, Encyclopedias

 -Histories

-Journal articles

-Magazines and newspaper

-Textbooks

Website

Tertiary Sources of information

Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources. Examples include:

-Almanacs

-Bibliographies (considered secondary)

-Chronologies

-Dictionaries and Encyclopedia (considered secondary)

-Directories

-Indexes, abstracts (They are used to locate primary and secondary sources)

-manual

-Textbooks (considered secondary)